Bridge, G., Bouzarovski, S., Bradshaw, M. & Eyre, N. Geographies of energy transition: space, place and the low-carbon economy. Energy Policy 53, 331–340 (2013).
Google Scholar
Samadi, S., Fischer, A. & Lechtenböhmer, S. The renewables pull effect: how regional differences in renewable energy costs could influence where industrial production is located in the future. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 104, 103257 (2023).
Google Scholar
Verpoort, P. C., Gast, L., Hofmann, A. & Ueckerdt, F. Impact of global heterogeneity of renewable energy supply on heavy industrial production and green value chains. Nat. Energy 9, 491–503 (2024).
Google Scholar
International Energy Agency. The Future of Hydrogen: Seizing Today’s Opportunities (IEA, 2019).
International Energy Agency. Tracking industry. IEA https://www.iea.org/energy-system/industry (2024).
United Nations Environment Programme. Emissions Gap Report 2023: Broken Record — Temperatures Hit New Highs, Yet World Fails to Cut Emissions (Again) (UNEP, 2023).
International Energy Agency. Global Hydrogen Review 2023 (IEA, 2023).
Riemer, M. et al. Future Hydrogen Demand: A Cross-Sectoral, Global Meta-Analysis (Fraunhofer ISI, 2022).
Odenweller, A. & Ueckerdt, F. The green hydrogen ambition and implementation gap. Nat. Energy 10, 110–123 (2025).
Google Scholar
International Renewable Energy Agency. World Energy Transitions Outlook 2023: 1.5°C Pathway (IRENA, 2023).
Hydrogen Council. Hydrogen for Net Zero — A Critical Cost-Competitive Energy Vector (Hydrogen Council, 2021).
International Renewable Energy Agency. Geopolitics of the Energy Transformation: The Hydrogen Factor (IRENA, 2022).
International Renewable Energy Agency. Hydrogen. IRENA https://www.irena.org/Energy-Transition/Technology/Hydrogen (2024).
Ueckerdt, F. et al. On the cost competitiveness of blue and green hydrogen. Joule 8, 104–128 (2024).
Google Scholar
Eicke, L. & Goldthau, A. Are we at risk of an uneven low-carbon transition? Assessing evidence from a mixed-method elite study. Environ. Sci. Policy 124, 370–379 (2021).
Google Scholar
Roche, M. Y., Mourato, S., Fischedick, M., Pietzner, K. & Viebahn, P. Public attitudes towards and demand for hydrogen and fuel cell vehicles: a review of the evidence and methodological implications. Energy Policy 38, 5301–5310 (2010).
Google Scholar
Semieniuk, G. et al. Stranded fossil-fuel assets translate to major losses for investors in advanced economies. Nat. Clim. Change 12, 532–538 (2022).
Google Scholar
Unruh, G. C. The real stranded assets of carbon lock-in. One Earth 1, 399–401 (2019).
Google Scholar
Van de Graaf, T. in The Geopolitics of Renewables (ed. Scholten, D.) 97–121 (Springer, 2018).
Lloyd’s & Oxford Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment. Stranded Assets: The Transition to a Low Carbon Economy — Overview for the Insurance Industry (Lloyd’s, 2017).
Gulli, C., Heid, B., Noffsinger, J., Waardenburg, M. & Wilthaner, M. Global energy perspective 2023: hydrogen outlook. McKinsey & Company https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/oil-and-gas/our-insights/global-energy-perspective-2023-hydrogen-outlook (2024).
Hydrogen Council & McKinsey & Company. Global Hydrogen Flows: Hydrogen Trade as a Key Enabler for Efficient Decarbonization (Hydrogen Council, 2022).
Pflugmann, F. & De Blasio, N. The geopolitics of renewable hydrogen in low-carbon energy markets. Geopolit. Hist. Int. Relat. 12, 9–44 (2020).
Quitzow, R. & Zabanova, Y. Geoeconomics of the transition to net-zero energy and industrial systems: a framework for analysis. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 214, 115492 (2025).
Google Scholar
Bonciu, F. The dawn of a geopolitics of a hydrogen-based economy. The place of European Union. Roman. J. Eur. Aff. 21, 95–113 (2021).
Pepe, J. M., Ansari, D. & Gehrung, R. M. The Geopolitics of Hydrogen: Technologies, Actors and Scenarios until 2040 (SWP, 2023).
Van de Graaf, T., Overland, I., Scholten, D. & Westphal, K. The new oil? The geopolitics and international governance of hydrogen. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 70, 101667 (2020).
Google Scholar
Goldthau, A., Quitzow, R. & Eicke, L. The geoeconomics of hydrogen industrial policy. Oxford Energy Forum 143, 66–69 (2025).
Eicke, L. & Quitzow, R. Toward a renewables-driven industrial landscape: evidence on investment decisions in the chemical and steel sectors. Preprint at Res. Sq. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5519615/v1 (2025).
Quitzow, R., Balmaceda, M. & Goldthau, A. The nexus of geopolitics, decarbonization, and food security gives rise to distinct challenges across fertilizer supply chains. One Earth 8, 101173 (2025).
Google Scholar
Eicke, L. & De Blasio, N. Green hydrogen value chains in the industrial sector — geopolitical and market implications. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 93, 102847 (2022).
Google Scholar
O’Sullivan, M. L. & Bordoff, J. The return of the energy weapon: an old tool creating new dangers. Foreign Aff. 104, 56 (2025).
Rodrik, D. Green industrial policy. Oxf. Rev. Econ. Policy 30, 469–491 (2014).
Google Scholar
Altenburg, T. & Rodrik, D. Green Industrial Policy: Accelerating Structural Change Towards Wealthy Green Economies (UN Environment, 2017).
Quitzow, R. & Zabanova, Y. (eds) The Geopolitics of Hydrogen — Volume 2: Major Economies and their Strategies (Springer, 2025).
Eicke, L. in The Geopolitics of Hydrogen — Volume 2: Major Economies and their Strategies (eds Quitzow, R. & Zabanova, Y.) 81–104 (Springer, 2025).
Aiginger, K. & Rodrik, D. Rebirth of industrial policy and an agenda for the twenty-first century. J. Ind. Compet. Trade 20, 189–207 (2020).
Google Scholar
World Bank. World Bank country and lending groups. World Bank https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups (2026).
PwC. The green hydrogen economy: predicting the decarbonisation agenda of tomorrow. PwC https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/industries/energy-utilities-resources/future-energy/green-hydrogen-cost.html#data-explorer-tool (2024).
Agora Industry and Umlaut. Levelised Cost of Hydrogen: Making the Application of the LCOH Concept More Consistent and More Useful (Agora, 2023).
Shafiee, R. T. & Schrag, D. P. Carbon abatement costs of green hydrogen across end-use sectors. Joule 8, 3281–3289 (2024).
Google Scholar
World Steel Association. World steel in figures 2023. World Steel Association https://worldsteel.org/data/world-steel-in-figures-2023 (2023).
Cefic. Data files (xls) 2025 Cefic facts and figures. Cefic https://cefic.org/resources/data-files-xls-2024-cefic-facts-and-figures (2025).
Gielen, D., Saygin, D., Taibi, E. & Birat, J. P. Renewables-based decarbonization and relocation of iron and steel making: a case study. J. Ind. Ecol. 24, 1113–1125 (2020).
Google Scholar
Nuñez-Jimenez, A. & De Blasio, N. Competitive and secure renewable hydrogen markets: three strategic scenarios for the European Union. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 47, 35553–35570 (2022).
Google Scholar
Wang, A. et al. Analysing Future Demand, Supply, and Transport of Hydrogen (European Hydrogen Backbone, 2021).
Devlin, A., Kossen, J., Goldie-Jones, H. & Yang, A. Global green hydrogen-based steel opportunities surrounding high quality renewable energy and iron ore deposits. Nat. Commun. 14, 2578 (2023).
Google Scholar
Zabanova, Y. in The Geopolitics of Hydrogen — Volume 1: European Strategies in Global Perspective (eds Quitzow, R. & Zabanova, Y.) 15–49 (Springer, 2024).
Galimova, T., Fasihi, M., Bogdanov, D. & Breyer, C. Impact of international transportation chains on cost of green e-hydrogen: global cost of hydrogen and consequences for Germany and Finland. Appl. Energy 347, 121369 (2023).
Google Scholar
Agora. Hydrogen Import Options for Germany: Analysis with an In-Depth Look at Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG) with a Nearly Closed Carbon Cycle (Agora, 2023).
Wolf, N., Kühn, L. & Höck, M. International supply chains for a hydrogen ramp-up: techno-economic assessment of hydrogen transport routes to Germany. Energy Convers. Manag. X 23, 100682 (2024).
Google Scholar
Ffe. Hydrogen transportation: analysis of the process chains and comparative cost evaluation. FfE https://www.ffe.de/en/publications/hydrogen-transportation-analysis-of-the-process-chains-and-comparative-cost-evaluation (2022).
International Energy Agency. Global Hydrogen Review 2024 (IEA, 2024).
Sayani, J. K. S. et al. Techno-economic analysis of hydrogen transport via repurposed natural gas pipelines: flow dynamics and infrastructure tradeoffs. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 147, 150033 (2025).
Google Scholar
d’Amore-Domenech, R., Meca, V. L., Pollet, B. G. & Leo, T. J. On the bulk transport of green hydrogen at sea: comparison between submarine pipeline and compressed and liquefied transport by ship. Energy 267, 126621 (2023).
Google Scholar
Kneebone, J. T. & Piebalgs, A. Are Pipelines and Ships an ‘either or’ Decision for Europe’s Hydrogen Economy? Planning Import Lines for Hydrogen and Derivatives (European University Institute, 2023).
Lim, D. & Edstrom, N. Chinese domestic hydrogen demand to compete with exports after Sinopec pipeline approval. S&P Global https://www.spglobal.com/commodity-insights/en/news-research/latest-news/energy-transition/071125-chinese-domestic-hydrogen-demand-to-compete-with-exports-after-sinopec-pipeline-approval (2025).
Kaiser, S., Prontnicki, K. & Bringezu, S. Environmental and economic assessment of global and German production locations for CO2-based methanol and naphtha. Green Chem. 23, 7659–7673 (2021).
Google Scholar
Lopez, G., Keiner, D., Fasihi, M., Koiranen, T. & Breyer, C. From fossil to green chemicals: sustainable pathways and new carbon feedstocks for the global chemical industry. Energy Environ. Sci. 16, 2879–2909 (2023).
Google Scholar
Egerer, J., Farhang-Damghani, N., Grimm, V. & Runge, P. The industry transformation from fossil fuels to hydrogen will reorganize value chains: big picture and case studies for Germany. Appl. Energy 358, 122485 (2024).
Google Scholar
World Bank. Shared infrastructure for clean hydrogen. World Bank http://hdl.handle.net/10986/43672 (2025).
Walker, B. & Klagge, B. Infrastructure bottlenecks as opportunity for local development: the case of decentralized green-hydrogen projects. Tijdschr. Econ. Soc. Geogr. 115, 643–659 (2024).
Google Scholar
Hydrogen Council & McKinsey & Company. Global Hydrogen Flows — 2023 Update. Considerations for Evolving Hydrogen Trade (Hydrogen Council, 2023).
European Hydrogen Backbone. The European Hydrogen Backbone (EHB) initiative. EHB https://ehb.eu (2026).
Arnaiz Del Pozo, C. & Cloete, S. Techno-economic assessment of blue and green ammonia as energy carriers in a low-carbon future. Energy Convers. Manag. 255, 115312 (2022).
Google Scholar
Bhaskar, A., Abhishek, R., Assadi, M. & Somehesaraei, H. N. Decarbonizing primary steel production: techno-economic assessment of a hydrogen based green steel production plant in Norway. J. Clean. Prod. 350, 131339 (2022).
Google Scholar
Meckling, J. The geoeconomic turn in decarbonization. Nature 645, 869–876 (2025).
Google Scholar
Seidl, T. & Schmitz, L. Moving on to not fall behind? Technological sovereignty and the ‘geo-dirigiste’turn in EU industrial policy. J. Eur. Public Policy 31, 2147–2174 (2023).
Google Scholar
Jerzyniak, T. The EU de-risking of energy dependencies: towards a new clean energy geopolitical order? Politics Gov. 12, 2183–2463 (2024).
Herranz-Surralles, A. The EU energy transition in a geopoliticizing world. Geopolitics 29, 1882–1912 (2024).
Kneebone, J., McWilliams, B., Moor, O &. Nuñez-Jimenez, A. A new European energy policy paradigm revealed by changes in hydrogen strategies. Energy Policy 212, 115159 (2026).
Google Scholar
Fakhreddine, J., Dodds, P. E. & Butnar, I. Global hydrogen trade pathways: a review of modelling advances and challenges. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 129, 236–252 (2025).
Google Scholar
Wasserstoff Kompas. Comparative Analysis of International Hydrogen Strategies: Country Analysis 2023 (Wasserstoff Kompass, 2024).
Deloitte. Rewiring globalization: five geoeconomic trends transforming the business environment. Deloitte https://www.deloitte.com/de/de/issues/efficiency-resiliency/rewiring-globalization-geoeconomic-trends.html (2024).
Goulard, S. The impact of the US–China trade war on the European Union. Glob. J. Emerg. Market Econ. 12, 56–68 (2020).
Javorcik, B., Kitzmueller, L., Schweiger, H. & Yildirim, M. A. Economic Costs of Friend-Shoring (European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 2023).
Maihold, G. A New Geopolitics of Supply Chains: The Rise of Friend-Shoring (SWP, 2022).
Vivoda, V. Friend-shoring and critical minerals: exploring the role of the minerals security partnership. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 100, 103085 (2023).
Google Scholar
Amighini, A. Europe needs to take advantage of its Global Gateway to face China’s BRI. ISPI https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/europe-needs-to-take-advantage-of-its-global-gateway-to-face-chinas-bri-175614 (2024).
Guerrieri, P. & Padoan, P. C. European Competitiveness and Strategic Autonomy — The European Union and the Double Challenge: Strengthening Competitiveness and Enhancing Economic Security (LUISS, 2024).
European Commission. Global Gateway. European Commission https://international-partnerships.ec.europa.eu/policies/global-gateway_en (2021).
European Commission. EU external energy engagements. European Commission https://energy.ec.europa.eu/topics/international-cooperation/eu-external-energy-engagements_en (2022).
Surana, K., Doblinger, C., Anadon, L. D. & Hultman, N. Effects of technology complexity on the emergence and evolution of wind industry manufacturing locations along global value chains. Nat. Energy 5, 811–821 (2020).
Google Scholar
Cantoni, R. & Rignall, K. Kingdom of the Sun: a critical, multiscalar analysis of Morocco’s solar energy strategy. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 51, 20–31 (2019).
Google Scholar
Gray, K. & Gills, B. K. South–South cooperation and the rise of the Global South. Third World Q. 37, 557–574 (2016).
Google Scholar
Dadush, U. & Wolff, G. B. The European Union’s Response to the Trade Crisis (Bruegel, 2019).
Gomes, I. et al. Hydrogen for the ‘Low Hanging Fruits’ of South America: Decarbonising Hard-to-abate Sectors in Brazil, Argentina, Colombia, and Chile (Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, 2024).
Trollip, H., McCall, B. & Bataille, C. How green primary iron production in South Africa could help global decarbonization. Clim. Policy 22, 236–247 (2022).
Google Scholar
Egli, F. et al. Mapping the cost competitiveness of African green hydrogen imports to Europe. Nature Energy 10, 750–761 (2025).
Google Scholar
International Renewable Energy Agency. The Cost of Financing for Renewable Power (IRENA, 2023).
Lee, M. & Saygin, D. Financing Cost Impacts on Cost Competitiveness of Green Hydrogen in Emerging and Developing Economies (OECD, 2023).
World Bank. Scaling Hydrogen: Financing for Development (World Bank, 2024).
Dechezleprêtre, A., Glachant, M., Haščič, I., Johnstone, N. & Ménière, Y. Invention and transfer of climate change-mitigation technologies: a global analysis. Rev. Environ. Econ. policy 5, 109–130 (2011).
Google Scholar
Klevstrand, A. Chinese companies take top three slots in BNEF’s list of world’s 20 largest hydrogen electrolyser makers. Hydrogen Insight https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/electrolysers/chinese-companies-take-top-three-slots-in-bnefs-list-of-worlds-20-largest-hydrogen-electrolyser-makers/2-1-1355610 (2022).
International Energy Agency. Hydrogen Patents for a Clean Energy Future: A Global Trend Analysis of Innovation along Hydrogen Value Chains (IEA, 2023).
International Energy Agency. Solar PV Global Supply Chains (IEA, 2022).
International Energy Agency. Onshore wind equipment manufacturing capacity by region and component, 2022–2025. IEA https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/onshore-wind-equipment-manufacturing-capacity-by-region-and-component-2022-2025 (2023).
Fofack, H. The Ruinous Price for Africa of Pernicious ‘Perception Premiums’ (Brookings, 2021).
Ilyina, A., Pazarbasioglu, C. & Ruta, M. Industrial policy is back but the bar to get it right is high. IMF https://www.imf.org/en/Blogs/Articles/2024/04/12/industrial-policy-is-back-but-the-bar-to-get-it-right-is-high (2024).
Jones, K. Politics vs Economics in World Steel Trade (Routledge, 2017).
Bekkerman, A., Brester, G. W. & Ripplinger, D. The history, consolidation, and future of the US nitrogen fertilizer production industry. Choices 35, 1–7 (2020).
Li, S., Zhang, Y., Nadolnyak, D., David Wesley, J. & Zhang, Y. Fertilizer industry subsidies in China: who are the beneficiaries? China Agric. Econ. Rev. 6, 433–451 (2014).
Google Scholar
International Energy Agency. Hydrogen. IEA https://www.iea.org/energy-system/low-emission-fuels/hydrogen (2025).
The White House. Building a Clean Energy Economy: A Guidebook to the Inflation Reduction Act’s Investments in Clean Energy and Climate Action (The White House, 2023).
Europea Commisson. Net-Zero Industry Act: Making the EU the home of clean technologies manufacturing and green jobs. European Commission https://employment-social-affairs.ec.europa.eu/news/net-zero-industry-act-making-eu-home-clean-technologies-manufacturing-and-green-jobs-2023-03-22_en (2023).
European Commission. REPowerEU: affordable, secure and sustainable energy for Europe. European Commission https://commission.europa.eu/topics/energy/repowereu_en (2022).
Eicke, L. Does policy design matter for the effectiveness of local content requirements? A qualitative comparative analysis of renewable energy value chains. Policy Studies J. 53, 604–617 (2025).
Google Scholar
Bazilian, M., Cuming, V. & Kenyon, T. Local-content rules for renewables projects don’t always work. Energy Strategy Rev. 32, 100569 (2020).
Google Scholar
Moreno-Brieva, F., Guimón, J. & Salazar-Elena, J. C. From grey to green and from west to east: the geography and innovation trajectories of hydrogen fuel technologies. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 101, 103146 (2023).
Google Scholar
Meckling, J., Galeazzi, C., Shears, E., Xu, T. & Anadon, L. D. Energy innovation funding and institutions in major economies. Nat. Energy 7, 876–885 (2022).
Google Scholar
Martin, P. Australia allocates A$750m in new grants for green metals, with continued support for hydrogen-based iron. Hydrogen Insight https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/policy/australia-allocates-a-750m-in-new-grants-for-green-metals-with-continued-support-for-hydrogen-based-iron/2-1-1792745 (2025).
Ayres, M. Brazil launches platform to attract foreign investment for climate and ecological projects. Reuters https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/sustainable-finance-reporting/brazil-launches-platform-attract-foreign-investment-climate-ecological-projects-2024-10-23/ (2024).
D’Orazio, P. Addressing climate risks through fiscal policy in emerging and developing economies: what do we know and what lies ahead? Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 119, 103852 (2025).
Google Scholar
Meckling, J. & Benkler, A. State capacity and varieties of climate policy. Nat. Commun. 15, 9942 (2024).
Google Scholar
Eicke, L. & Weko, S. Does green growth foster green policies? Value chain upgrading and feedback mechanisms on renewable energy policies. Energy Policy 165, 112948 (2022).
Google Scholar
Meckling, J. Governing renewables: policy feedback in a global energy transition. Environ. Plan. C 37, 317–338 (2019).
Neumann, F., Zeyen, E., Victoria, M. & Brown, T. The potential role of a hydrogen network in Europe. Joule 7, 1793–1817 (2023).
Google Scholar
Schmitz, R. et al. Implications of hydrogen import prices for the German energy system in a model-comparison experiment. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 63, 566–579 (2024).
Google Scholar
Seck, G. S. et al. Hydrogen and the decarbonization of the energy system in Europe in 2050: a detailed model-based analysis. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 167, 112779 (2022).
Google Scholar
Peterssen, F. et al. Hydrogen supply scenarios for a climate neutral energy system in Germany. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 47, 13515–13523 (2022).
Google Scholar
Quitzow, R., Nunez, A. & Marian, A. Positioning Germany in an international hydrogen economy: a policy review. Energy Strategy Rev. 53, 101361 (2024).
Google Scholar
Osaki, Y. & Hughes, L. in The Geopolitics of Hydrogen — Volume 2: Major Economies and their Strategies (eds Quitzow, R. & Zabanova, Y.) 155–177 (Springer, 2025).
Pinto, M. C., Simões, S. G. & Fortes, P. How can green hydrogen from North Africa support EU decarbonization? Scenario analyses on competitive pathways for trade. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 79, 305–318 (2024).
Google Scholar
Carley, S. & Konisky, D. M. The justice and equity implications of the clean energy transition. Nat. Energy 5, 569–577 (2020).
Google Scholar
Kennedy, K. M. et al. Advancing equitable value chains for the global hydrogen economy. Energy Clim. Change 5, 100166 (2024).
Google Scholar
Cremonese, L., Mbungu, G. K. & Quitzow, R. The sustainability of green hydrogen: an uncertain proposition. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 48, 19422–19436 (2023).
Google Scholar
Müller, F., Tunn, J. & Kalt, T. Hydrogen justice. Environ. Res. Lett. 17, 115006 (2022).
Google Scholar
Kalt, T. & Tunn, J. Shipping the sunshine? A critical research agenda on the global hydrogen transition. GAIA Ecol. Persp. Sci. Soc. 31, 72–76 (2022).
Dillman, K. J. & Heinonen, J. A ‘just’ hydrogen economy: a normative energy justice assessment of the hydrogen economy. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 167, 112648 (2022).
Google Scholar
Combariza Diaz, N. C. Alternative pathways for green hydrogen economy: the case of Colombia. Contemp. Soc. Sci. 19, 41–65 (2024).
Google Scholar
Dunlap, A. More wind energy colonialism(s) in Oaxaca? Reasonable findings, unacceptable development. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 82, 102304 (2021).
Google Scholar
Scott, M. & Powells, G. Towards a new social science research agenda for hydrogen transitions: social practices, energy justice, and place attachment. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 61, 101346 (2020).
Google Scholar
Lindner, R. Green hydrogen partnerships with the Global South. Advancing an energy justice perspective on “tomorrow’s oil”. Sustain. Dev. 31, 1038–1053 (2023).
Google Scholar
Dejonghe, M. Risky business? Evaluating hydrogen partnerships established by Germany,the Netherlands, and Belgium. Sustainability 15, 16876 (2023).
Google Scholar
Lopez, G., Galimova, T., Fasihi, M., Bogdanov, D. & Breyer, C. Towards defossilised steel: supply chain options for a green European steel industry. Energy 273, 127236 (2023).
Google Scholar
Aditiya, H. et al. Hydrogen transport across oceans: a techno-economic assessment of hydrogen carriers. Appl. Energy 399, 126513 (2025).
Google Scholar
Salmon, N. & Bañares-Alcántara, R. Green ammonia as a spatial energy vector: a review. Sustain. Energy Fuels 5, 2814–2839 (2021).
Google Scholar
Eichengreen, B. Globalization and growth in a bipolar world. J. Policy Model. 46, 714–722 (2024).
Google Scholar
Wu, J. Global Trends in Manufacturing Supply Chains (Springer, 2025).
Karaduman, C. The effects of economic globalization and productivity on environmental quality: evidence from newly industrialized countries. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 29, 639–652 (2022).
Google Scholar
HyIron. Technology & product. HyIron https://hyiron.com/technology-product (2025).
Devlin, A. & Yang, A. Regional supply chains for decarbonising steel: energy efficiency and green premium mitigation. Energy Convers. Manag. 254, 115268 (2022).
Google Scholar
Ministry of Mines and Energy Namibia. Namibia: Green Hydrogen and Derivatives Strategy (Ministry of Mines and Energy Namibia, 2022).
Bähr, C. et al. Die Zukunft Energieintensiver Industrien in Deutschland (Dezernat Zukunft, 2023).
Quitzow, R. & Zabanova, Y. (eds) in The Geopolitics of Hydrogen — Volume 1: European Strategies in Global Perspective 233–249 (Springer, 2024).
Bouacida, I. in The Geopolitics of Hydrogen — Volume 1: European Strategies in Global Perspective (eds Quitzow, R. & Zabanova, Y.) 67–84 (Springer, 2024).
Urbasos, I. & Escribano, G. in The Geopolitics of Hydrogen — Volume 1: European Strategies in Global Perspective (eds Quitzow, R. & Zabanova, Y.) 131–149 (Springer, 2024).
Carafa, L. & Escribano, G. in Handbook of Transitions to Energy and Climate Security (ed. Looney, R.) 66–78 (Routledge, 2016).
Schmitt, T. M. Why did Desertec fail? An interim analysis of a large-scale renewable energy infrastructure project from a social studies of technology perspective. Local Environ. 23, 747–776 (2018).
Google Scholar
Xiang, P.-P. et al. Regional reallocation of zero-carbon ammonia production in China with carbon neutrality targets. Adv. Clim. Change Res. 16, 199–212 (2025).
Google Scholar
Sovacool, B. K. et al. The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 121, 103948 (2025).
Google Scholar
International Energy Agency. CCUS in Clean Energy Transitions (IEA, 2020).
Kurniawan, J. et al. Towards participatory cross-impact balance analysis: leveraging morphological analysis for data collection in energy transition scenario workshops. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 93, 102815 (2022).
Google Scholar
Eicke, L. et al. Resource exporter or R&D champion? Leverage points and transition pathways for the Chilean energy sector. Energy Sustain. Dev. 76, 101257 (2023).
Google Scholar
Schuch, E. et al. Breaking the carbon lock-in: identifying pathways for Malaysia towards a low-carbon future. Technol. Forecast Soc. Change 202, 123331 (2024).
Google Scholar
Rogge, K. S. & Reichardt, K. Policy mixes for sustainability transitions: an extended concept and framework for analysis. Res. Policy 45, 1620–1635 (2016).
Google Scholar
Kern, F. & Howlett, M. Implementing transition management as policy reforms: a case study of the Dutch energy sector. Policy Sci. 42, 391–408 (2009).
Google Scholar
Johnstone, P., Rogge, K. S., Kivimaa, P., Fratini, C. F. & Primmer, E. Exploring the re-emergence of industrial policy: perceptions regarding low-carbon energy transitions in Germany, the United Kingdom and Denmark. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 74, 101889 (2021).
Google Scholar
World Steel Association. World steel in figures 2025. World Steel Association https://worldsteel.org/media/publications/world-steel-in-figures-2025 (2025).
Von Hippel, E. Lead users: a source of novel product concepts. Manag. Sci. 32, 791–805 (1986).
Google Scholar
Galimova, T. et al. Global trading of renewable electricity-based fuels and chemicals to enhance the energy transition across all sectors towards sustainability. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 183, 113420 (2023).
Google Scholar
Bilici, S. et al. Global trade of green iron as a game changer for a near-zero global steel industry? A scenario-based assessment of regionalized impacts. Energy Clim. Change 5, 100161 (2024).
Google Scholar
Galimova, T., Fasihi, M., Bogdanov, D., Lopez, G. & Breyer, C. Analysis of green e-methanol supply costs: domestic production in Europe versus imports via pipeline and sea shipping. Renew. Energy 241, 122336 (2025).
Google Scholar
Fasihi, M., Weiss, R., Savolainen, J. & Breyer, C. Global potential of green ammonia based on hybrid PV–wind power plants. Appl. Energy 294, 116170 (2021).
Google Scholar
Lopez, G. et al. Assessing European supply chain configurations for sustainable e-polyethylene production from sustainable CO2 and renewable electricity. Energy Convers. Manag. 306, 118295 (2024).
Google Scholar
Hampp, J., Düren, M. & Brown, T. Import options for chemical energy carriers from renewable sources to Germany. PLoS ONE 18, e0262340 (2023).
Google Scholar
Verleysen, K., Coppitters, D., Parente, A. & Contino, F. Where to build the ideal solar-powered ammonia plant? Design optimization of a Belgian and Moroccan power-to-ammonia plant for covering the Belgian demand under uncertainties. Appl. Energy Combust. Sci. 14, 100141 (2023).
Nykvist, B., Gong, J., Algers, J. & Åhman, M. Renewables pull and strategic push — what drives hydrogen-based steel relocation? Appl. Energy 395, 126189 (2025).
Google Scholar
Seibold, T., Neumann, F., Ueckerdt, F. & Brown, T. Balancing cost savings and import dependence in Germany’s industry transformation. Preprint at arXiv https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2510.00918 (2025).
Cao, T., Sugiyama, M. & Ju, Y. Prospects of regional supply chain relocation for iron & steel industry decarbonization: a case study of Japan and Australia. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 209, 107804 (2024).
Google Scholar
